6.4 Evaluation of Simulation Experiments
In addition to basic thermodynamic observables such as
internal energy (eq.
6.1)
and pressure (equ.
6.2)
many more details about the structure
and the dynamics of statistical-mechanical systems may be accessed.
Let us consider two such quantities, the pair correlation function
$g(r)$ and the velocity autocorrelation function $C(t)$.
PROJECT MD/MC (LENNARD-JONES):
(See also
here)
In your Lennard-Jones MD and MC programs, include a procedure to
calculate averages of the total potential energy and the virial
as defined by
$
W\equiv\sum \limits_{i}\vec{K}_{i}\cdot \vec{r}_{i} = -\frac{\textstyle 1}{\textstyle 2}
\sum \limits_{i} \sum \limits_{j} \vec{K}_{ij}\cdot \vec{r}_{ij}
$
From these compute the internal energy and the pressure.
Compare with results from literature, e.g. [
MCDONALD 74,
VERLET 67].
Allow for deviations in the $5-10\%$ range, as we have
omitted a correction for the finite sample size (`cutoff correction').
Subsections
6.4.1 Pair Correlation Function
Let
$
a(r;\Gamma_{c}) = \sum \limits_{i}\delta(r_{i}- r)
$
An average of this quantity represents the relative frequency,
or probability densitiy of some particle being situated near
$r$. In other words, $\langle a(r)\rangle=\rho(r)$
is simply the mean fluid density at position $r$:
$
\rho(r)=\langle \sum \limits_{i}\delta(r_{i}-r)\rangle
$
In a fluid we usually have $\rho(r)=const$; only in the presence
of external fields or near surfaces $\rho(r)$ varies in a
non-trivial manner.
Let us proceed to the "pair correlation function" (PCF)
$
g(r)=\frac{\textstyle V}{\textstyle 4\pi r^{2}N^{2}}
\langle\sum \limits_{i} \sum \limits_{j\neq i} \delta (r-r_{ij}) \rangle
$
This is the
conditional probability density of finding a particle at
$r$, given that there is a particle at the coordinate origin.
Thus $g(r)$ provides a measure of local spatial ordering in a fluid.
To determine $g(r)$, proceed like this:
The typical shape of the PCF at liquid densities is depicted in
Fig.
6.6.
Figure 6.6:
Pair correlation function of the Lennard-Jones liquid
|
Significance of $g(r)$ in fluid physics:
- The average of any quantity that depends on the pair
potential $u(r)$ may be expressed as an integral over $g(r)$.
Example: pressure (see also 6.2)
$
p=\frac{\textstyle NkT}{\textstyle V}-\frac{\textstyle N^{2}}{\textstyle 6V^{2}}
\int\limits_{V}r\frac{\textstyle du}{\textstyle dr} g(r) dr
$
- Theory: analytical approximations to $g(r)$ for a given pair potential
$u(r)$.[KOHLER 72],
[HANSEN 86]
- Experiment: the Fourier transform of $g(r)$, the "scattering law"
$
S(k)+ \frac{\textstyle N}{\textstyle V} \int \limits_{V} [g(r)-1]
e^{\textstyle i k\cdot r} dr
$
is just the relative intensity of neutron or X-ray scattering at
a scattering angle $\theta$ with
$
k \equiv \frac{\textstyle 4 \pi}{\textstyle \lambda}
\sin \frac{\textstyle \theta}{\textstyle 2}
$
PROJECT MD/MC (LENNARD-JONES):
(See also
here)
Augment your Lennard-Jones MD (or MC) program by a routine that
computes the pair correlation function $g(r)$ according to
the procedure given above;
remember to apply the nearest image convention
when computing the pair distances.
As the subroutine ENERGY already contains a loop over all particle pairs
$(i,j)$, it is best to increment the $g(r)$ histogram within that loop.
Plot the PCF and see whether it resembles the one given in
Figure 6.6.
6.4.2 Autocorrelation Functions
An elementary example of temporal correlations of the form
$
C_{a}(t) \equiv \langle a(0) a(t) \rangle
$
is the velocity autocorrelation in fluids
$
C(t)\equiv \langle v_{i}(0) \cdot v_{i}(t) \rangle
$
Simple kinetic theory, which takes into account only binary
collisions, predicts $C(t) \propto e^{-\lambda t}$. At fluid densities
a different behavior is to be expected. Nevertheless the first results on
$C(t)$ obtained by Alder [
ALDER 67] provided some surprises.
It turned out that at intermediate fluid densities and long times
$C(t) \propto t^{-3/2}$ instead of showing an exponential decay.
This has profound consequences. The diffusion constant $D$
of a liquid is given by
$
D = \frac{\textstyle 1}{\textstyle 3} \int \limits_{0}^{\infty}C(t) dt
$
Due to the long time tail of $C(t)$ the simulation result for
$D$ is about $30$ percent larger than its kinetic estimate.
The reason for the long time tail in $C(t)$ was later explained as a
collective dynamical effect: part of the momentum of a particle
is stored in a microscopic vortex that dies off very slowly.
[DORFMAN 72]
Figure 6.7:
Velocity autocorrelation function of the Lennard-Jones fluid
Procedure for calculating autocorrelation functions $ \langle a(0) a(t) \rangle $:
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